Experiences of social stigma of people living with Hansen's disease in Brazil: silencing, secrets and exclusion.

BACKGROUND: Hansen's disease is a chronic, infectious and transmissible disease that is considered a public health problem in Brazil. Hansen's disease is marked by stigma and prejudice, because it carries with it a strong negative social image, reinforced by policies of social isolation in the community. METHODS: A qualitative study was conducted in Ribeirão Preto, an inland city of the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Eleven patients under treatment for the disease were interviewed. The interviews were audio recorded and transcribed in full, then were analyzed through the stages of transcription, transposition and reconstitution, as informed by concepts proposed by Goffman. RESULTS: The results showed that the marks of stigma are still present in the twenty-first century and were presented in two axes: 'Stigma and work for the person affected by Hansen's disease' and 'The experience of stigma in the family'. The participants refer to fears of losing their jobs and of being ridiculed, which stops them talking about the disease. Regarding their families, the participants reported episodes of discrimination, the creation of family secrets and fear of relatives' reactions. CONCLUSIONS: All these aspects interfere in the follow-up and treatment of patients and need to be considered and welcomed by health professionals. It is recommended that these aspects are addressed in the initial training and continuing education of health professionals. CONTEXTE: La maladie de Hansen est une maladie chronique, infectieuse et transmissible, considérée comme un problème de santé publique au Brésil. La maladie de Hansen est marquée par la stigmatisation et les préjugés, car elle véhicule une image sociale fortement négative, renforcée par des politiques d'isolement social au sein de la communauté. MÉTHODES: Étude qualitative menée à Ribeirão Preto, une ville intérieure de l'État de São Paulo, au Brésil. Onze patients traités pour la maladie ont été interrogés. Les entretiens ont été enregistrés et transcrits intégralement, et ont été analysés en suivant les étapes de transcription, de transposition et de reconstitution, selon les concepts proposés par Goffman. RÉSULTATS: Les résultats montrent que les marques de la stigmatisation sont toujours présentes au 21ème siècle et ont été présentées selon deux axes : 'La stigmatisation et le travail pour la personne affectée par la maladie de Hansen' et 'L'expérience de la stigmatisation dans la famille'. Les participants évoquent la peur de perdre leur emploi, la peur d'être ridiculisés, ce qui les pousse à ne pas parler de la maladie. En ce qui concerne les familles, les participants ont rapporté des épisodes de discrimination, la création de secrets de famille et la peur des réactions des proches. CONCLUSIONS: Tous ces aspects interfèrent dans le suivi et le traitement des patients et doivent être pris en compte et accueillis par les professionnels de la santé. Il est recommandé que ces aspects soient abordés dans la formation initiale et la formation continue des professionnels de la santé. ANTECEDENTES: La enfermedad de Hansen es una enfermedad crónica, infecciosa y transmisible, considerada un problema de salud pública en Brasil. La enfermedad de Hansen está marcada por el estigma y el prejuicio, ya que conlleva una fuerte imagen social negativa, reforzada por políticas de aislamiento social en la comunidad. MÉTODOS: Estudio cualitativo realizado en Ribeirão Preto, una ciudad del interior del estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Se entrevistaron a once pacientes en tratamiento para la enfermedad. Las entrevistas fueron grabadas en audio, transcritas en su totalidad y analizadas a través de etapas de transcripción, transposición y reconstitución, según los conceptos propuestos por Goffman. RESULTADOS: Los resultados muestran que las marcas del estigma siguen presentes en el siglo XXI y se presentaron en dos ejes: 'Estigma y trabajo para la persona afectada por la enfermedad de Hansen' y 'La experiencia del estigma en la familia'. Los participantes mencionan el miedo a perder sus trabajos, el temor a ser ridiculizados, lo que les impide comentar sobre la enfermedad. En cuanto a las familias, los participantes reportaron episodios de discriminación, la creación de secretos familiares y el miedo a las reacciones de los familiares. CONCLUSIONES: Todos estos aspectos interfieren en el seguimiento y tratamiento de los pacientes y deben ser considerados y acogidos por los profesionales sanitarios. Se recomienda abordar estos aspectos en la formación inicial y la educación continua de los profesionales sanitarios.

Risk-prone territories for spreading tuberculosis, temporal trends and their determinants in a high burden city from São Paulo State, Brazil.

OBJECTIVES: To identify risk-prone areas for the spread of tuberculosis, analyze spatial variation and temporal trends of the disease in these areas and identify their determinants in a high burden city. METHODS: An ecological study was carried out in Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil. The population was composed of pulmonary tuberculosis cases reported in the Tuberculosis Patient Control System between 2006 and 2017. Seasonal Trend Decomposition using the Loess decomposition method was used. Spatial and spatiotemporal scanning statistics were applied to identify risk areas. Spatial Variation in Temporal Trends (SVTT) was used to detect risk-prone territories with changes in the temporal trend. Finally, Pearson's Chi-square test was performed to identify factors associated with the epidemiological situation in the municipality. RESULTS: Between 2006 and 2017, 1760 cases of pulmonary tuberculosis were reported in the municipality. With spatial scanning, four groups of clusters were identified with relative risks (RR) from 0.19 to 0.52, 1.73, 2.07, and 2.68 to 2.72. With the space-time scan, four clusters were also identified with RR of 0.13 (2008-2013), 1.94 (2010-2015), 2.34 (2006 to 2011), and 2.84 (2014-2017). With the SVTT, a cluster was identified with RR 0.11, an internal time trend of growth (+ 0.09%/year), and an external time trend of decrease (- 0.06%/year). Finally, three risk factors and three protective factors that are associated with the epidemiological situation in the municipality were identified, being: race/brown color (OR: 1.26), without education (OR: 1.71), retired (OR: 1.35), 15 years or more of study (OR: 0.73), not having HIV (OR: 0.55) and not having diabetes (OR: 0.35). CONCLUSION: The importance of using spatial analysis tools in identifying areas that should be prioritized for TB control is highlighted, and greater attention is necessary for individuals who fit the profile indicated as "at risk" for the disease.

[COVID-19 morbidity and mortality associated with chronic disorders, healthcare services, and inequity: evidence for a syndemicMorbimortalidad por COVID-19 asociada a los problemas crónicos de salud, los servicios de salud y las inequidades: evidencia de sindemia]. / Morbimortalidade por COVID-19 associada a condições crônicas, serviços de saúde e iniquidades: evidências de sindemia.

Objective: To identify factors correlated with the incidence and mortality from COVID-19 and investigate syndemic situations at the global level. Method: An ecologic study of confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths was performed using information collected from the European Center for Disease Prevention and Control in 2019 and 2020. World Bank indicators and information obtained from Worldometer Coronavirus were used to characterize the countries. Descriptive analyses and correlations between independent variables were performed, followed by multiple linear regression analysis to identify factors correlated with COVID-19 incidence and mortality. Results: Data were obtained for 185 countries. Mean case incidence was 16 482/1,000 population, whereas mean COVID-19 mortality was 291/1,000 population, with the highest and lowest rates recorded in North America and East Asia and Pacific respectively. A positive correlation was identified between incidence rate and percent population aged 15 to 64 years, urban population, inequality measured by the Gini coefficient, and six out of the seven regions analyzed (except East Asia and Pacific). Mortality rate was negatively correlated with population aged 0 to 14 years and positively correlated with urban population, inequality measured by the Gini coefficient, and all regions analyzed except East Asia and Pacific. Conclusions: COVID-19 morbidity and mortality were correlated with the burden of chronic diseases, aging population, and low capacity of healthcare services for testing and providing hospital beds, a scenario complicated by social inequality in countries and regions, indicating a syndemic effect.

Objetivo: Identificar los factores correlacionados con la incidencia de COVID-19 y la mortalidad por esa causa y verificar las situaciones de sindemia a escala mundial. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio ecológico de casos de COVID-19 y de defunciones confirmadas por esa causa a partir de la información obtenida del Centro Europeo para la Prevención y el Control de las Enfermedades en el 2019 y el 2020. Para caracterizar a los países, se utilizaron indicadores del Banco Mundial y del sitio web de referencia Worldometer Coronavirus. Se hicieron análisis descriptivos y de correlación entre las variables independientes para crear posteriormente un modelo de regresión lineal múltiple con el fin de identificar los factores correlacionados con la incidencia de COVID-19 y la mortalidad por esa causa. Resultados: Se obtuvieron datos de 185 países. La tasa media de incidencia de casos de COVID-19 fue de 16 482 por mil habitantes y la tasa media de mortalidad por esa causa fue de 291 por mil habitantes. Las regiones de América del Norte y de Asia oriental y el Pacífico presentaron los mayores y menores índices, respectivamente. Se observó una correlación positiva de la tasa de incidencia con la proporción del grupo de 15 a 64 años de edad, la población urbana, la desigualdad medida por el coeficiente de Gini y seis de las siete regiones analizadas (excepto Asia oriental y el Pacífico). La tasa de mortalidad presentó una correlación negativa con el grupo de 0 a 14 años de edad y positiva con la población urbana, la desigualdad medida por el coeficiente de Gini y todas las regiones analizadas, excepto Asia oriental y el Pacífico. Conclusiones: La morbimortalidad por COVID-19 guardó una correlación con la carga de problemas crónicos de salud, el envejecimiento de la población y la poca capacidad de realizar pruebas en los servicios de salud y de ofrecer camas de hospital, cuadro agravado en los países o regiones con una elevada tasa de desigualdad social y característico de una situación de sindemia.

Morbimortalidade por COVID-19 associada a condições crônicas, serviços de saúde e iniquidades: evidências de sindemia

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Identificar os fatores correlacionados à incidência e mortalidade por COVID-19 e verificar situações de sindemia em escala global. Métodos. Realizou-se um estudo ecológico de casos e óbitos confirmados de COVID-19 a partir de informações coletadas do European Center for Disease Prevention and Control em 2019 e 2020. Para a caracterização dos países, utilizaram-se indicadores do Banco Mundial e Worldometer Coronavirus. Foram realizadas análises descritivas e de correlação entre as variáveis independentes para posteriormente realizar o modelo de regressão linear múltipla, com o objetivo de identificar os fatores correlacionados à incidência e mortalidade por COVID-19. Resultados. Obtiveram-se dados de 185 países. A média da incidência dos casos foi de 16 482/mil habitantes, enquanto a média para mortalidade por COVID-19 foi de 291/mil habitantes, sendo América do Norte e Leste Asiático e Pacífico as regiões que apresentaram maiores e menores índices, respectivamente. Identificouse correlação positiva da taxa de incidência com proporção da população com idade de 15 a 64 anos, população urbana, desigualdade conforme Índice de Gini e com seis das sete regiões analisadas (exceto Leste Asiático e Pacífico). A taxa de mortalidade apresentou correlação negativa com a população de 0 a 14 anos e positiva com população urbana, desigualdade conforme índice de Gini e todas as regiões analisadas, exceto Leste Asiático e Pacífico. Conclusões. A morbimortalidade da COVID-19 esteve correlacionada à carga de condições crônicas, ao envelhecimento da população e à baixa capacidade dos serviços de saúde para testagem e oferta de leitos hospitalares, quadro agravado em países ou regiões com elevada desigualdade social, caracterizando uma situação de sindemia.

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To identify factors correlated with the incidence and mortality from COVID-19 and investigate syndemic situations at the global level. Method. An ecologic study of confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths was performed using information collected from the European Center for Disease Prevention and Control in 2019 and 2020. World Bank indicators and information obtained from Worldometer Coronavirus were used to characterize the countries. Descriptive analyses and correlations between independent variables were performed, followed by multiple linear regression analysis to identify factors correlated with COVID-19 incidence and mortality. Results. Data were obtained for 185 countries. Mean case incidence was 16 482/1,000 population, whereas mean COVID-19 mortality was 291/1,000 population, with the highest and lowest rates recorded in North America and East Asia and Pacific respectively. A positive correlation was identified between incidence rate and percent population aged 15 to 64 years, urban population, inequality measured by the Gini coefficient, and six out of the seven regions analyzed (except East Asia and Pacific). Mortality rate was negatively correlated with population aged 0 to 14 years and positively correlated with urban population, inequality measured by the Gini coefficient, and all regions analyzed except East Asia and Pacific. Conclusions. COVID-19 morbidity and mortality were correlated with the burden of chronic diseases, aging population, and low capacity of healthcare services for testing and providing hospital beds, a scenario complicated by social inequality in countries and regions, indicating a syndemic effect.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Identificar los factores correlacionados con la incidencia de COVID-19 y la mortalidad por esa causa y verificar las situaciones de sindemia a escala mundial. Métodos. Se realizó un estudio ecológico de casos de COVID-19 y de defunciones confirmadas por esa causa a partir de la información obtenida del Centro Europeo para la Prevención y el Control de las Enfermedades en el 2019 y el 2020. Para caracterizar a los países, se utilizaron indicadores del Banco Mundial y del sitio web de referencia Worldometer Coronavirus. Se hicieron análisis descriptivos y de correlación entre las variables independientes para crear posteriormente un modelo de regresión lineal múltiple con el fin de identificar los factores correlacionados con la incidencia de COVID-19 y la mortalidad por esa causa. Resultados. Se obtuvieron datos de 185 países. La tasa media de incidencia de casos de COVID-19 fue de 16 482 por mil habitantes y la tasa media de mortalidad por esa causa fue de 291 por mil habitantes. Las regiones de América del Norte y de Asia oriental y el Pacífico presentaron los mayores y menores índices, respectivamente. Se observó una correlación positiva de la tasa de incidencia con la proporción del grupo de 15 a 64 años de edad, la población urbana, la desigualdad medida por el coeficiente de Gini y seis de las siete regiones analizadas (excepto Asia oriental y el Pacífico). La tasa de mortalidad presentó una correlación negativa con el grupo de 0 a 14 años de edad y positiva con la población urbana, la desigualdad medida por el coeficiente de Gini y todas las regiones analizadas, excepto Asia oriental y el Pacífico. Conclusiones. La morbimortalidad por COVID-19 guardó una correlación con la carga de problemas crónicos de salud, el envejecimiento de la población y la poca capacidad de realizar pruebas en los servicios de salud y de ofrecer camas de hospital, cuadro agravado en los países o regiones con una elevada tasa de desigualdad social y característico de una situación de sindemia.

Risk areas for tuberculosis among children and their inequalities in a city from Southeast Brazil.

BACKGROUND: The objective of the study was to identify areas of risk for the appearance of tuberculosis in children and their association with social inequalities in a municipality in southeastern Brazil. METHODS: Ecological study conducted in Ribeirão Preto, Brazil. To identify areas of spatial risk for tuberculosis in children, we used spatial scanning statistics. To analyze the association of cases of childhood tuberculosis with social vulnerability, we used the Social Vulnerability Index of São Paulo, and four explanatory statistical models were listed. RESULTS: There were 96 cases of childhood tuberculosis, of which 90 were geocoded through a process of converting addresses to geographic coordinates. A risk area was identified in the municipality, where children under 15 years old have 3.14 times greater risk of contracting tuberculosis than those living outside this area. The variables identified as risk factors were: number of private and collective households, proportion of children aged 0 to 5 years in the population, proportion of households without per capita income, and the proportion of private households with monthly nominal incomes of up to one quarter of wage minimums. The variables identified as protection factors were the proportion of women under the age of 30 years responsible for the household under and women responsible for the household with an average income over BRL 2344. CONCLUSION: The study showed areas of risk for the occurrence of tuberculosis in children. The study is in line with the End TB Strategy and the 2030 Agenda, which aim to support strategic actions and, therefore, save the lives of children through the systematic, intensified, and comprehensive identification of children with tuberculosis respiratory symptoms in the community.

Trends and forecasts of leprosy for a hyperendemic city from Brazil's northeast: Evidence from an eleven-year time-series analysis.

This study's objective was to estimate the temporal trends of leprosy according to sex and age groups, as well as to estimate and predict the progression of the disease in a hyperendemic city located in the northeast of Brazil. This ecological time-series study was conducted in Imperatriz, Maranhão, Brazil. Leprosy cases diagnosed between 2006 and 2016 were included. Detection rates stratified by sex and age groups were estimated. The study of temporal trends was accomplished using the Seasonal-Trend Decomposition method and temporal modeling of detection rates using linear seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average model according to Box and Jenkins method. Trend forecasts were performed for the 2017-2020 period. A total of 3,212 cases of leprosy were identified, the average incidence among men aged between 30 and 59 years old was 201.55/100,000 inhabitants and among women in the same age group was 135.28/100,000 inhabitants. Detection rates in total and by sex presented a downward trend, though rates stratified according to sex and age presented a growing trend among men aged less than 15 years old and among women aged 60 years old or over. The final models selected in the time-series analysis show the forecasts of total detection rates and rates for men and women presented a downward trend for the 2017-2020 period. Even though the forecasts show a downward trend in Imperatriz, the city is unlikely to meet a significant decrease of the disease burden by 2020.

Temporal trends in areas at risk for concomitant tuberculosis in a hyperendemic municipality in the Amazon region of Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Although preventable and curable, tuberculosis (TB) still occurs in poor or developing countries, mainly in metropolitan regions of larger cities. The disease is a serious public health problem, and is directly linked to social issues. We analyzed temporal trend variations in areas at risk for concomitant TB, and characterized the clinical and epidemiological profiles of cases in a hyperendemic municipality in the Amazon region of Brazil. METHODS: This ecological study was performed in the municipality of Manaus, in northern Brazil. The population comprised cases with concomitant pulmonary and extrapulmonary TB, registered on the Notifiable Diseases Information System (SINAN), between January 1, 2009 and December 31, 2018. For risk cluster detection, spatial and spatiotemporal scanning statistical techniques were used. The Spatial Variation in Temporal Trends (SVTT) approach was used to detect and infer clusters for significantly different time trends. RESULTS: Between 2009 and 2018, 873 concomitant TB cases were registered in Manaus. By using purely spatial scanning statistics, we identified two risk clusters. The relative risk (RR) of the clusters was 2.21 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.57-2.88; P = 0.0031) and 2.03 (95% CI: 1.58-2.58; P = 0.0029). Using space-time scanning, we identified a risk cluster with an RR of 3.57 (95% CI: 2.84-4.41; P = 0.014), between 2017 and 2018. For SVTT analyses, three clusters with spatial variations were detected in the significant temporal trends: SVTT 1 (P = 0.042), SVTT 2 (P = 0.046) and SVTT 3 (P = 0.036). CONCLUSIONS: In Brazil, several TB-determining factors such as race/color, gender, low educational level and low income overlap in needy urban areas and communities, demonstrating that it is unlikely to reach the goals, agreed and launched with the END TB Strategy within the deadlines of international agreements, if there is no reduction in existing inequities determinants and risk of illness in the country.

Determinants of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in São Paulo-Brazil: a multilevel Bayesian analysis of factors associated with individual, community and access to health services.

OBJECTIVE: Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) remains a serious public health problem worldwide. Accordingly, this study sought to identify individual, community and access to health services risk factors for MDR-TB. METHODS: Retrospective cohort of all TB cases diagnosed between 2006 and 2016 in the state of São Paulo. A Bayesian spatial hierarchical analysis with a multilevel design was carried out. RESULTS: It was identified that the history of previous TB treatment (Odds Ratios [OR]:13.86, 95% credibility interval [95% CI]:12.06-15.93), positive sputum culture test (OR: 5.26, 95% CI: 4.44-6.23), diabetes mellitus (OR: 2.34, 95% CI: 1.87-2.91), residing at a standard address (OR: 2.62, 95% CI: 1.91-3.60), positive sputum smear microscopy (OR: 1.74, 95% CI: 1.44-2.12), cavitary pulmonary TB (OR: 1.35, 95% CI: 1.14-1.60) and diagnosis performed due to spontaneous request (OR: 1.26; 95% CI: 1.10-1.46) were associated with MDR-TB. Furthermore, municipalities that performed HIV tests in less than 42.65% of patients with TB (OR: 1.50, 95% CI: 1.25-1.79), that diagnosed TB cases only after death (OR: 1.50, 95% CI: 1.17-1.93) and that had more than 20.16% of their population with income between » and ½ of one minimum wage (OR: 1.56, 95% CI: 1.30-1.87) were also related to the MDR-TB. CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge of these predictive factors may help to develop more comprehensive disease prevention strategies for MDR-TB, avoiding the risks expressed regarding drug resistance expansion.

OBJECTIF: La tuberculose multirésistante (TB-MDR) reste un grave problème de santé publique dans le monde. Cette étude visait à identifier les facteurs de risque individuels, communautaires et d'accès aux services de santé pour la TB-MDR. MÉTHODES: Analyse de cohorte rétrospective de tous les cas de TB diagnostiqués entre 2006 et 2016 dans l'Etat de São Paulo par analyse bayésienne spatiale à plusieurs niveaux. RÉSULTATS: Les antécédents de traitements antituberculeux (Rapports de cotes [OR]: 13,86, Intervalle de confiance à 95% [IC95%]: 12.06-15.93), un test de culture d'expectorations positif (OR: 5,26, IC95%: 4,44-6,23), le diabète sucré (OR: 2,34, IC95%: 1,87-2,91), la résidence à une adresse standard (OR: 2,62, IC95%: 1,91-3,60), la microscopie à frottis positif (OR: 1,74, IC95%: 1,44-2,12), la TB pulmonaire (OR: 1,35, IC95%: 1,14-1,60) et le diagnostic réalisé en raison d'une demande spontanée (OR: 1,26; IC95%: 1,10-1,46) étaient associés à la TB-MDR. Les municipalités qui ont effectué des tests de dépistage du VIH chez moins de 42,65% des patients atteints de TB (OR: 1,50, IC95%: 1,25-1,79), qui ont diagnostiqué des cas de TB uniquement après le décès (OR: 1,50, IC95%: 1,17-1,93) et qui avaient plus de 20,16% de leur population avec un revenu entre » et ½ d'un salaire minimum (OR: 1,56, IC95%: 1,30-1,87) étaient également associées à la TB-MDR. CONCLUSIONS: La connaissance de ces facteurs prédictifs peut aider à développer des stratégies plus complètes de prévention des maladies pour la TB-MDR, en évitant les risques d'extension de la résistance aux médicaments.